Answers to Supplemental Questions

Topic 1:

What is personality psychology?

Personality psychology refers to the branch of psychology that is concerned with the study of the personalities of individuals and how their related mental processes inform their subsequent behaviours. In addition to this, personality psychology investigates the ways in which individuals and their personality traits are similar and dissimilar to other persons of wider populations.
Why is the study of personality important?

The study of personality is of particular importance as it helps us to understand human behaviours and its underlying motives and influences much better. By investigating the commonalities and differences among personalities and personality types, psychologists are able to make better inferences on human behaviour and recognise any related ailments or disorders of the kind.
What is a theory?

A theory refers to a set of related assumptions which allow scientists to formulate hypotheses using logical, deductive reasoning. While the components of a theory are not considered facts, when applied, they are taken as if they were presumed to be true.
Differentiate between a theory and a hypothesis

As a theory relates to a set of related assumptions that allow for the formulation of hypotheses through the use of logical, deductive reasoning, a hypothesis refers to the educated assumptions that are generated from a theory, and which is specific enough to have its validity tested. As such, unlike a hypothesis, a theory is a broader set of generalisations and assumptions which cannot be tested as a whole for validity.
What makes a theory useful? Briefly describe the 6 components of a useful theory
1. Generates research > the relationship between theory and research is cyclical in nature. As such, a useful theory is capable of producing hypotheses through the use of logical, deductive reasoning, which can then be tested in the realms of research. Once tested, these hypotheses are then capable of producing findings, therefore generating research. Therefore, by following this line of logic, a useful theory is able to guide the generation of research through the production of many hypotheses, thereby stimulating new questions rather than shutting down inquiry.
2. Is falsifiable > as a theory is made up of a set of related assumptions, these assumptions ultimately cannot be too broad or narrow in focus or untestable in nature. This is as these assumptions must be able to produce testable hypotheses which therefore furthers the realm of research, which in turn informs the theory. While the theory itself may be too broad in nature to test for validity as a whole, unlike a hypothesis, it still must remain flexible enough to be disproven in the event that its assumptions do not align with reality.
3. Organises data > a useful theory is capable of organising data by providing meaning to the data generated from research findings. This therefore gives researchers and scientists a guide to follow in terms of how the data is interpreted and how it may inform further research.
4. Guides action > through the organisation of data, a useful theory is capable of providing researchers with the necessary information to guide future direction and further investigations. It also provides a guide to persons outside the realm of research, such as decision makers and policy makers, on how the information generated from subsequent research may be utilised to guide actionable policies and interventions, thereby emphasising practical utility.
5. Internally consistent > a good theory does not contradict itself and uses uniformed/consistent language to further keep in line with conceptual consistency. This is not only necessary for clarity, but also for informing research and future actions in alignment with the theory’s postulations.
6. Parsimonious > a simple theory is much preferred over an overcomplicated and complex theory, especially when the former is an available option. This is as it allows for easy comprehension of the theory, which minimises the possibility of inconsistent interpretations, as well as allows for all of the necessary information to be communicated as efficiently and easily as possible. </aside>

Topic 2:

What are the four sources of data used when studying people?

The four sources of data used when studying people include: L data (i.e. life data that is inclusive of the subject’s life history, medical records, and other objective facts surrounding their life from birth until the present), O data (i.e. observer data which is inclusive of any insight gained from researcher’s observations of the subject’s behaviour or actions in a given situation or environment. it also includes any observations made by friends, family members, or persons who know the subject well), T data (i.e. speaks to testing data, which is inclusive of standarised tests used to ascertain the subject’s performance in relation to the norm group, as well as any structured task designed to elicit behaviour), and S data (i.e. self-reported data that is obtained through observations made by the subject themselves and it is usually obtained through questionnaires).
What is the difference between fixed measures and flexible measures?

A fixed measure is nomothetic in nature, meaning that the findings from the instrument paints a picture of the subject in relation to the norm group. These types of measures are a bit more broad and may therefore not contain items that relate to the subject. Flexible measures on the other hand, are more ideographic in nature and are more tailored to the subject. As such the findings from these measures may be more open to subjective interpretation as opposed to objective scoring like the fixed tests.
What is reliability and validity in research?

In research, reliability refers how consistent the responses from a given measure is (i.e. how many times do the responses remain the same or similar in nature when the test is repeatedly administered). Validity on the other hand, refers to how well the measure is representative of the construct it claims to measure. As such, there are 2 main types of validity, construct and predictive. Construct validity looks at how well the instrument investigates the construct being studied, and may be ascertained in two ways (i.e. convergent and divergent validity). Convergent validity assesses how well the instrument measures the construct in relation to other measures that are assessing the same construct, while divergent validity assesses how differently the instrument measures the construct in relation to measures that are assessing completely unrelated constructs). Predictive validity, however, looks at how well the instrument is able to predict future behaviours.
Discuss the following 5 methods of assessment:
1. Self-report objective memories - this refers to the technique by which subjects report observations they would have made of themselves from past events and experiences. It often involves the use of questionnaires, and requires participant introspection. some shortcomings may involve self-presentation biases or social desirability which may shadow participants from reporting their objective experiences or how they may have actually felt.
2. Projective techniques - this involves procedures in which the client/subject is presented with a stimulus, after which, their behaviours, responses and facial expressions may be observed and interpreted by the clinician. Follow-up questioning or probing may occur in relation to certain responses for further insight into the client’s thoughts and experiences.
3. Clinical interviews - this involves interviewing processes in which the personality professional/clinician may ask open-ended questions to the client. The purpose of this method is to achieve richer insight into the subject’s responses and thoughts. The interpretations from these findings, however, are susceptible to interpretation biases, as these interpretations may reflect the clinician’s own theoretical beliefs or personal biases from previous experiences.
4. Behavioural assessment procedures - this involves the observation and interpretation of client’s behaviours and mannerisms in a given environment or situation, and may be insightful as it captures actual behaviour (behavioural/body language is often subconsciously conveyed and may therefore be more insightful/accurate than verbal communication at times).
5. Thoughts and experience sampling procedures - this procedure involves subjects recording their thoughts, emotions, or feelings in relation to particular experiences at set times throughout the day. The issues with this method includes that the activity itself requires high levels of introspection, clients may forget to record their thoughts at the given periods during the day, or they may be occupied and unable to record their thoughts or feelings at those given times.
Describe the four major research methods used in the study of personality:
1. The clinical method - the clinical method involves the recording of the patient’s experiences from as early as they are able to recall, up until the present. The clinician therefore looks for information both in the patient’s past and present experiences to piece together their personality and possible factors which may be causing instabilities. the process is more subjective in nature in comparison to the experimental and correlational methods, and may thus be susceptible to the clinician’s own biases.
2. The experimental method - the experimental utilises controlled environments, systematic procedures, and objective scoring to investigate clients’ personality and behaviours. this method is particularly useful for making causal claims, as the patient’s behaviours are compared within or among groups or before/after interventions or medications.
3. The virtual research method - the virtual research method takes a modern spin on the experimental method, moving the process online. This process is good for recruiting large samples in a cost-effective and time-efficient manner. However, its method may be biased in that it may capture less variability in age ranges, education levels, socio-economic classes, agreeableness, and other personal traits such as introversion or neuroticism.
4. The correlational method - this method utilises existing variables and their attributes to compare and assess the relationships between and among them. It is good for attaining insight into relationships existing among the variables, but is limited in its predictive powers as no causal claims can be made. </aside>